English Language Tests and Linguistics

Question: Discuss about the English Language Tests and Linguistics. Answer: Introduction The term diagnosis is a widely used medical term and is derived from the Greek word diagignoskein meaning distinguishing or discerning. Generally associated with the identification and recognition of the cause and nature of a disorder or disease, the term diagnosis distinguishes and connects a disease and its symptoms. Medically, some psychological, mental, and physiological symptoms are examined to determine and identify the disease because of which the symptoms arise. A diagnostic process measures, assesses, gathers data, interprets the collected information and data.. A diagnosis is the very first and the most important step in the treatment of a patient. It is only after diagnosis that a doctor can prescribe medicines and eventually treat the patient. Wrong diagnoses of a disease may lead to severe implications (Lee, 2015). In the field of language, the terms diagnostic testing and diagnoses are used to analyze and test language. Diagnostic language assessment or DLA is a widely known and accepted tool employed in the present times by language teachers, language testers, applied linguists, and writing researchers at large. The DLA is a useful tool to pinpoint the problems of students to learn a language. It identifies the root cause of a problem and provides a measure to the learners and the teachers as well. Over time, there has been a gradual shift in the mode of testing. The focus has shifted from screening/selection oriented testing to a more learning-oriented assessment (Boerma et al., 2015). In such a scenario, where the emphasis is laid on a learning induced approach rather than a mere testing approach, diagnostic language assessment identifies the potential of an individual and promotes a scope for greater learning outcomes that is otherwise beyond the test makers reach. Several factors have pro mpted the use of such assessment approaches. Assessment tools like the DLA extract finer diagnostic information from evaluations and develop new evaluation tools. The first step is the formative assessment in which the learning process of the students are monitored continuously to identify the problems that the learners face to reach the learning goals. It provides feedback to the learners as well as the teachers. This helps to adjust and fix the learning and teaching accordingly. Formative assessments are usually classroom based and low staked. For the DLA to be successful, an explicit feedback is highly essential (Owens, 2013). The functions of DLA The diagnostic language assessment has great demand for it has heightened the awareness of wash back effect. The wash back effect is the degree to which particular language test prompts the learners and teachers to do a task which they would otherwise not do to inhibit or promote learning. The Diagnosis language assessment is highly different from the existing language assessment tools. While assessing the strengths and weaknesses of a learner, it is assumed that the targeted competency of the student is fully functional, healthy, and normal. The functioning and normality states are evaluated differently in diagnostic language assessment since most of the learners of the second language are in the developmental stage. The most crucial function of DLA is to identify the weaknesses of learners and the underlying causes, and then help them to overcome those shortcomings. The need is to help learners move to the next level of learning. The DLA fishes out the areas of improvement and help s them to overcome their deficiencies thereby enhancing their potential. However, apart from identifying and improving the deficiencies, Diagnosis Language Assessment distinguishes the weaknesses from the strength. If possible, the weaknesses are further analyzed and pinpointed. Until and unless a correct diagnosis is worked out, the process of disentangling and decomposing continues at different specificity levels. An ideal DLA would thus represent, describe and identify the weaknesses in a specified and detailed manner. The weaknesses must be presented in parallel with the strengths (Carter McRae, 2014). New elements must be built into the existing structures of skills, knowledge, and processes. The relationship between the weaknesses and strengths of the learners must always be kept in sight to enhance the operation of functioning and learning. DLA generates more detailed and accurate information about the strengths and weaknesses of a learner. It highlights the causes and helps to produce a solution to the problem. Apart from summative test scores, the DLA reports the weakness strength pattern thereby making a special effort to make one understand the attribute/component scores (Drasgow, 2015). The essence and difference of DLA lies in the fact that it gives due attention to diagnostic feedback. Though feedback and increased specificity is a vital part of the Diagnosis language assessment, researchers do not consider granularity to be an absolute concept. They think that it is a relative one for it is difficult to determine the specific areas of feedback and diagnosis in DLA. For instance, some scores of skill section like speaking, reading, writing, and listening may provide a more accurate dossier compared to the total score. However, the attribute or sub skill score such as that of specific understanding, general understanding, and the skill of inference, analyzed through the cognitive diagnostic from the reading segment of a test may provide more specific knowledge in comparison to the reading section taken alone. In fact, each of the attributes can be subdivided into micro-level skills and attributes (Torre Minchen, 2014 ). The question that arises here is how an individual can then determine granularity or specificity in different contexts of DLA. The first step may be to conceptualize specificity as a continuum rather than simply considering it a dichotomy. Next, a more reformulated, concrete question arises such as what feedback specificity levels can be most effective for learning activities that would be remedial (Hongjun Feng, 2015). The standard of diagnostic information must be specified for both the teachers and the learners, so that weaknesses can be identified and acted upon accordingly. Other factors such as test purposes, test design, student characteristics, and assessment construct must be considered and kept in mind to determine the optimal specificity level for feedback and diagnosis. In such a scenario, it is essential to examine carefully the feedback of accumulated body of research It is essential to focus on the characteristics of learners like learning styles, learner background, and language proficiency (Damankesh Babaii, 2015). The Diagnosis learning assessment is both forward and backward looking. It is a backward-looking process for it assesses what the learners have learned and what they have not in the past. It is forward looking as it has an explicit goal to facilitate and impact remedial learning by providing guidance and feedback for activities that are designed to strengthen the weaknesses that have been identified and hence increase the growth potential. The DLA is intended in such a way that it is relatively more specific, individualized, customized and direct to the needs of teachers and learners. It is fundamentally crucial to ensure the effectiveness and accuracy of diagnostic feedback (Xie, 2016). Other language tests Diagnostic language tests like the Chaplen Speeded Grammar and Vocabulary Test is used in Manchester University. Itis a test to gauge the knowledge of the learner in English language. A percentage score is given for the total number of correct answers. Students generally score approximately 50- 90% in this test. Getting more than 90% indicates that the student is very much efficient in language of the native speaker. Scores below 40% indicate the inefficiency of the student in language. The test uses a multiple choice questions format in which the Grammar and vocabulary of the students is tested within twenty eight minutes. These sections test the lexical and structural knowledge of the student. Each section comprises fifty questions and a word or phrase is omitted in each question. The student must choose the correct option from the list of answers. Students are asked to choose the correct verb, adjective, preposition, articles and other parts of speech. The time allotted to the stu dents for completing the task is very short. This is done to hunt out the more proficient students. This process of elimination helps to mark the students quickly. The system is combined with an OMR system which means that many students can be tested at the same time and the results can be given in a very less time. Moreover, it contains short essay type questions that must be completed in thirty minutes. However, tests like Chaplen are neither for testing language production nor for testing language skills. It is just a narrow aspect of language competence used to recognize the grammatical and lexical proficiency. Tests like TOEFL and IELTS are much more internationally recognized, expensive, and sophisticated than such Diagnostic language assessments. IELTS and TOEFL take a long time to test the students but they test a broader range of language skills. Tests like IELTS have a total of 40 questions and have a variety of questions such as the multiple choice, sentence completion, map/ diagram/ plan labelling, summary completion or note/ form/ table completion. It also has tests based on listening skills. The test is divided into four sections. The first two sections deal with situations set in everyday social contexts. Section one comprises questions based on conversation between two speakers. Section two has a monologue. The final two situations comprises questions based on training and educational contexts. The time allotted for the test is 30 minutes. An additional 10 minutes is allotted for transfer. During listening test, students write anaswers after listening to the question. At they en d, they are supposed to transfer their answers from the question paper to the answer script. Certificated markers mark the listening test. These certificated markers are monitored regularly to ensure reliability. After the marks are given at the test centre, all the answer scripts are returned for analysis to the Cambridge English language Assessment. The scores rae presented in half bands and whole bands. A Band Score conversion table is generated for each version of the listening test. The scores are then transferred from 40 into the 9-band scale. Components of DLA The Diagnostic Learning Assessment has three components. The core component is diagnosis whose goal is to identify both the strengths and the weaknesses of the learner that prevents the individual from moving beyond the current state of knowledge, competence, ability, proficiency, and learning. Diagnosis identifies the impediments that come in the way of the learner. Diagnosis requires utilizing various instruments such as questionnaires and tests. It includes processes for understanding the strength-weakness patterns of learners by analyzing, collecting, and scoring the data of test takers. It even classifies learners into groups with the same pattern of strengths and weaknesses (Urmston et al., 2016). It is essential to distinguish the strengths from the shortcomings at this very stage and also pinpoint the underlying or root causes of weaknesses. It may require several rounds of diagnostic testing. The second component of DLA is feedback. It is designed to summarize, describe, and give the results of diagnosis to the teachers, learners, and various other stakeholders. DLA facilitates the future learning process of language learners through a carefully designed remedial activity and feedback. This feedback must be acted upon by the teachers and the learners as well (Xie, 2016). Once the weaknesses and strengths are identified, the information must be communicated to the teachers and learners so that they can take the recommended and necessary steps to strengthen the weaknesses and increase the potential of the learner. The practice of diagnostic feedback includes providing an enhanced report stating the score and having the summary of the comparison of strengths and weakness patterns of the learner. The report may contain both the qualitative and quantitative information regarding the knowledge and skills of the test taker. The quantitative dossier must comprise the attribute or skill scores in case of multiple choice questions section or dimension/ analytic/ trait scores in the constructed-response section. It must also contain section and total scores. The quantitative information can be presented visually or graphically. Thereafter, a verbal description may be submitted so that learners can easily understand them. This would enhance the meaningfulness and interpretation level of the information extracted diagnostically (Shohamy, 2014). The third and final components are the instruction and remedial learning. The term remedy is also used widely in the field of medical science. In DLA, treatment or remedial education comprises a set of activities designed to solve the issues of the learners and enhance their learning process. The attributes that were considered weak are taken up, and appropriate measures are taken to reach the desired goals of proficiency and knowledge. In fact, remedial learning forms a crucial component of the Diagnosis Language Assessment and the last and final step. It is this element through which learners can gain knowledge of the steps that must be taken to improve themselves (Alderson et al., 2014).There are three major kinds of remedial learning. They are, firstly, therapeutic programs provided by the DLA developers, and for which they are responsible. It comprises acting upon the feedback received from the diagnosis of the learner through the DLA system. Secondly, the institutes and teacher s can provide remedial instruction or learning programs to the students. Thirdly, the learners can garner self help to learn activities for themselves. This would assist them to carry on remedial activities independently without the aid of teachers, institutes, or DLA developed programs. Schools and educators can play a vital role in the development and implementation of a long term or short term remedial learning program. This may run along with the school curriculum or may be embedded in the regular instruction. The school coordinators and administration must consult and collaborate with the DLA developers to inculcate DLA in the school curriculum (Nichols et al., 2012). Challenges faced by DLA The first and foremost challenge faced by DLA is that there is no absolute criterion to determine the absolute granularity. There is a lack of understanding in defining the parts and subparts which must be decomposed in various contexts. There is a further lack of the development of instruments, tests, procedures and tools to examine the strengths and weaknesses of the learners at different levels and link those results to the remedial learning activities. Researchers try to define and identify essential attributes (skills, processes, and knowledge) in cognitive diagnosis approach (CDA) (Torre Minchen, 2014). These attributes are considered the underlying factors that impact the learning process and performance (Bachman, 2014). The strength- weakness patterns are identified and defined by the attributes in the Q-matrix. Such attributes are also used in Diagnosis Language Assessment. However, these attributes may not always be helpful in pinpointing and assessing the strengths and we aknesses of the learners at specific levels. The specificity and quantity of dimensions or attributes may get constrained due to several logistic considerations. It may get affected by the type and number of tasks and the analytical tools. Moreover, it is mandatory to understand ways to link the specific and overall assessment results. Though diagnostic feedback is a crucial component of DLA, the field seems to have a rudimentary understanding of the things it should contain. They are unaware of a proper feedback structure and the remedies that would be useful in the learning process. Another significant issue regarding DLA is that there is a fundamental dilemma to meet conflicting requirements. These include satisfying psychometric requirements and providing feedback based on DLA so that it becomes meaningful and productive. It is crucial to establish links between various components horizontally. Links must be drawn up between the qualitative and quantitative information generated by DLA. There must also be a connection between diagnosis, feedback, and remedial learning. Apart from reflecting the results of diagnosis correctly and accurately, it must align itself with the remedial activities strictly to ensure greater effectiveness and a positive impact (Owens, 2013). Validity of Diagnostic Language Assessment Talking about the validity of Diagnostic Language assessment, Conti-Ramsden (2012) argues that there is very little guidance guidance available in literature when it comes to testing foreign or second language. There is almost no guidance on how to conduct a diagnostic test and what are the appropriate diagnostic tests. Moreover, there is neither any theoretical basis nor any validity of diagnostic tests in language. However, researchers are making efforts in this field to improve and develop the situation. When a variety of tasks including open writing task and multiple choice questions was employed on learners, it was seen that diagnostic tests are able to provide a comprehensive feedback of the strengths and weaknesses of the learners. Moreover, Chapelle,(2015) had investigated the validity and effects of cognitive reading skills assessment on learning and teaching. It was found that diagnostic tests are highly valid and are able to provide informative feedback to students and tea chers. Diagnostic tests can provide proper feedback about some particular points in language. Self assessment is an important tool in diagnostic test. However, another research conducted by Torre Minchen, (2014) indicated that approaches like the Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment or the CDA is more effective than the DLA in providing diagnostic feedback. I Deal as a Language Assessment tool Students with diverse cultural contexts, disciplinary backgrounds, and varying cultural perspectives come to Deakin University. To assess the language proficiency of students, test like IELTS can be conducted. However, a lack of common standard and a diversity of background of students makes it difficult to identify the students who need guidance in language development. Deakin University thus conducts a post entry English language diagnosis. For this purpose, Deakin University chose iDeal which comprises a diagnostic tool, language development resources and screening components. The diagnostic tool has ten subcategories across listening, reading, and writing. It is at the level of subcategories that immediate diagnostic feedback score is given in the form of percentage. Development and resources strategies are linked to each subcategory in such a way that students can choose the areas they must focus. The best thing about iDeal is that it is available at no cost to all domestic, postgraduate, undergraduate, international, off and on campus students. It is easily accessible as it is present online. It provides professional as well as academic versions. It points out the immediate language developmental needs and directs them to relevant language programs. However, the system has faced several issues. It is unable to determine the shape or overall framework. There is a communication gap between the students, staff, and IT developers. Nevertheless, the University is working upon the issues and trying to develop the language assessment tool to help students. Conclusion Diagnostic assessment is of great help in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of students who are learning English as a first or second language. It caters to the particular needs of students and helps them to plan activities for the development of skills. Diagnostic language assessment thus identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the learners and focuses on developing the weaknesses through remedial measures and activities. It enables a detailed analysis and creates a responsive report of the tasks or items. 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